Lesson 2: The Monroe Doctrine: President Monroe and the Independence Movement in South America

If desired, share with the class information on the connection between independence movements in South America and the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine from the class textbook or another source, such as the website of the U.S. Department of State, which offers the following summary:

"In his December 2, 1823, address to Congress, President James Monroe articulated U.S. policy on the new political order developing in the rest of the Americas and the role of Europe in the Western Hemisphere. The statement, known as the Monroe Doctrine, was little noted by the Great Powers of Europe but eventually became a longstanding tenet of U.S. foreign policy. Monroe and his Secretary of State John Quincy Adams drew upon a foundation of American diplomatic ideals such as disentanglement from European affairs and defense of neutral rights as expressed in Washington's Farewell Address and Madison's stated rationale for waging the War of 1812. The three main concepts of the Doctrine—separate spheres of influence for the Americas and Europe, noncolonization, and nonintervention—were designed to signify a clear break between the New World and the autocratic realm of Europe. Monroe's administration forewarned the imperial European powers against interfering in the affairs of the newly independent Latin American states or potential U.S. territories. While Americans generally objected to European colonies in the New World, they also desired to increase U.S. influence and trading ties throughout the region to their south. European mercantilism posed the greatest obstacle to economic expansion. In particular, Americans feared that Spain and France might reassert colonialism over the Latin American peoples who had just overthrown European rule. Signs that Russia was expanding its presence southward from Alaska toward the Oregon Territory also were disconcerting.

"For their part, the British also had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, with all the trade restrictions mercantilism imposed. Earlier in 1823 British Foreign Minister George Canning suggested to Americans that two nations issue a joint declaration to deter any other power from intervening in Central and South America. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, however, vigorously opposed cooperation with Great Britain, contending that a statement of bilateral nature could limit U.S. expansion in the future. He also argued that the British were not committed to recognizing the Latin American republics and must have had imperial motivations themselves."

The essay Defending American Interests in Foreign Affairs on the EDSITEment resource Digital History offers this:

"The critical foreign policy issue facing the United States after the War of 1812 was the fate of Spain's crumbling New World empire. Many of Spain's New World colonies had taken advantage of turmoil in Europe during the Napoleonic Wars to fight for their independence. These revolutions aroused intense sympathy in the United States, but many Americans feared that European powers might restore monarchical order in Spain's New World."

Activity 1. President Monroe and the Revolutionary Movements in South America

The leaders of the revolts exploited and were inspired by their connections to the American Revolution, despite the many differences between their movements and the movement that established the United States. To increase their legitimacy, the revolutionary leaders of South America sought U.S. recognition, as documents offered in this lesson reveal. President Monroe also attempted to exploit the relationship of the United States to the revolutionary struggles, encouraging "the popular perception of Simon Bolivar of Colombia as the George Washington of Latin America" (from James Monroe: Foreign Affairs on the EDSITEment-reviewed website The American President). Share with the class the annotated excerpts from "Monroe on Recognition of the Independent States of South America" on pages 11-12 of the Master PDF. Or, if desired, use the full text of President Monroe to Congress: Recognition of the Independent States of South America, available on the EDSITEment-reviewed website American Memory. As a guide to your discussion, use "Questions to Accompany President Monroe's Message on Recognition" on page 13 of the Master PDF.

Students should be able to respond effectively, either in writing or class discussion, to the following questions:

• How did conditions in Europe relate to the independence movements in South America?
• What reasons did President Monroe give for recognizing the independence movements in South America?

Revolutionary Movements in South America: Primary and Secondary Sources

Students interested in extending this lesson can read some secondary accounts of and primary documents from the revolutionary movements in South America. They can begin their study of any country listed below with a brief secondary account (from the Library of Congress Country Studies, a link from the EDSITEment resource American Memory, unless otherwise specified) and a primary document (from American Memory, unless otherwise specified). Students should come to a better understanding of the following:

• The connection between independence movements in South America and relations between European countries.
• The resemblance between the independence movements of South America and the struggle for independence in the United States.
• The differences between the independence movements of South America and the struggle for independence in the United States.
• The intent of the primary document. Which one or more of the following applies? Based on what evidence? Or are there other intentions?
  • To gain legitimacy for the independence movement.
  • To gain momentum and support for a movement that has not yet achieved its goals.
  • To establish diplomatic relations with other countries.
  • To formalize its independent status.
  • To elicit empathy in comparison to America's struggle for independence.

NOTE: Students may encounter the Spanish word "criollo" (English: creole). The criollos were of mixed parentage—European and Native American. Though many criollos had achieved relative prosperity and power in their countries, they resented their inability to achieve full power or recognition due to racism and/or the entrenched power structure.

• Argentina
  • Background information on Argentine history from Argentina, The Columbia Encyclopedia: Sixth Edition:
    
    Independence and the Nineteenth Century
    A prelude to independence was the British attack on Buenos Aires. Admiral Sir Home Popham and Gen. William Carr Beresford took the city in 1806 after the Spanish viceroy fled. An Argentine militia force under Jacques de Liniers ended the British occupation and beat off a renewed attack under Gen. John Whitelocke in 1807.
    
    On May 25, 1810 (May 25 is the Argentine national holiday), revolutionists, acting nominally in favor of the Bourbons dethroned by Napoleon (see Spain), deposed the viceroy, and the government was controlled by a junta. The result was war against the royalists. The patriots under Manuel Belgrano won (1812) a victory at Tucumán. On July 9, 1816, a congress in Tucumán proclaimed the independence of the United Provinces of the Río de La Plata. Other patriot generals were Mariano Moreno, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón, and José de San Martín.
    
    Uruguay and Paraguay went their own ways despite hopes of reunion. In Argentina, a struggle ensued between those who wanted to unify the country and those who did not want to be dominated by Buenos Aires. Independence was followed by virtually permanent civil war, with many coups by regional, social, or political factions. Rule by the strong man, the caudillo, alternated with periods of democratic rule, too often beset by disorder.
    
    Anarchy was not ended by the election of Bernardino Rivadavia in 1826. The unitarians, who favored a centralized government dominated by Buenos Aires, were opposed to the federalists, who resented the oligarchy of Buenos Aires and were backed by autocratic caudillos with gaucho troops. The unitarians triumphed temporarily when Argentinians combined to help the Uruguayans repel Brazilian conquerors in the battle of Ituzaingó (1827), which led to the independence of Uruguay. The internal conflict was, however, soon resumed and was not even quelled when Gen. Juan Manuel de Rosas, the most notorious caudillo, established a dictatorship that lasted from 1835 to 1852.
  • Primary document: Presenting Colonel Martin Thompson as the authorized deputy or minister of Buenos Ayres, and requesting the protection and assistance of the United States, 1816, January 16
• Chile
  • Background information on Chilean history: Chile: A Country Study (Click on "Chile: Wars Of Independence, 1810-18.")
  • Primary document: Bernardo O'Higgins to the President of the United States (April 1817)
• Colombia
  • Background information on Columbian history: Colombia (Click on "Developments Leading to Independence" and "The Independence Movement.")
  • Primary document: The Republic of Colombia Declared, uniting Columbia, Venezuela, and Ecuador (February 20, 1821)
• Peru
  • Background information on Peruvian history: Peru (Click on "INDEPENDENCE IMPOSED FROM WITHOUT, 1808-24.")
  • Primary document: Act of the Independence of Peru (July 15, 1821)
• Venezuela
  • Background information on Venezuelan history: Venezuela (Click on "The Epic of Independence.")
  • Primary documents: Don Manuel Torres to the Secretary of States (John Quincy Adams) page 1 (November 1821), Don Manuel Torres to the Secretary of States (John Quincy Adams) page 2 (November 1821), and Simón de Bolívar: Message to the Congress of Angostura, 1819, from the Internet Modern History Sourcebook, a link from the EDSITEment resource LANIC. (NOTE: Don Manuel Torres delivered, among other papers, a letter from the vice president of the newly declared Republic of Columbia—created from a combination of Venezuela and New Granada [present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador]—introducing himself as an official agent of the Columbian government.)

Selected EDSITEment Websites

American Memory

• Act of the Independence of Peru (July 15, 1821)
• Bernardo O'Higgins to the President of the United States, April 1, 1817
• Don Manuel Torres to the Secretary of State (John Quincy Adams), November 30, 1821
• New map of South America from the latest authorities. From Samuel Lewis' Atlas, 1817
• Presenting Colonel Martin Thompson as the authorized deputy or minister of Buenos Ayres, and requesting the protection and assistance of the United States, January 16, 1816
• President Monroe to Congress: Recognition of the Independent States of South America
• The Republic of Columbia Declared, February 20, 1821 (uniting Columbia, Venezuela, and Ecuador)
• The Library of Congress
  • Analysis of Primary Sources
  • Chile: A Country Study
  • Columbia: A Country Study
  • Country Studies
  • Peru: A Country Study
  • Venezuela: A Country Study

The American President

• James Monroe
  • Biography
  • Foreign Affairs

American Studies at the University of Virginia

• United States Territorial Maps
  • United States in 1810
  • United States in 1820

Digital History

• Conquering Space (Westward Expansion)
• Defending American Interests in Foreign Affairs
• The Eagle, the Tiger, and the Shark
• Embargo of 1807
• The Growth of American Nationalism

Internet Public Library

• The American Presidency
  • James Monroe Biography
• The Columbia Encyclopedia: Sixth Edition
  • Argentina
• United States Department of State
  • Foreign Relations of the United States
  • John Jay's Treaty
  • Monroe Doctrine
  • Washington's Farewell Address
  • Information USA
    • The Monroe Doctrine (1823)

LANIC

• Internet Modern History Sourcebook
  • Simón de Bolívar: Message to the Congress of Angostura, 1819