Scraping the Sky: Architecture and American History

For most of human history, tall buildings have endured as aspirational markers of a great societies. For the Egyptians, monumental pyramids symbolized the ascension to the heavens; delicately layered Japanese pagodas served as spaces for contemplation; and Gothic cathedrals impressed upon the masses the awe-inspiring might of God. Despite the geographical, formal, and stylistic differences among these various types of vertically oriented architecture, they remain unified by their ambition to inspire and impose.

In the West, the Enlightenment, in addition to ushering in a new era of experimental free thinking, marked a shift in funding for the arts from church patronage to free market development. By the second half of the 19th century, Europe and most of the Americas were in the throes of Industrial Revolution. In particular, the secular, free-market capitalism of the United States coupled with rapidly densifying cities encouraged entrepreneurs to innovate. The parallel expansion of the American city also encouraged vertical exploration. Stacked floor plans provided the density needed to support urban life while also maximizing the return on investment for developers. New terminology—the “skyscraper”—evoked notions of human technological achievement. By the middle of the 20th century, slender towers of glass and steel could be found around the world, the hallmark of any successful, modern city.

The invention of the electrically powered passenger elevator, refinement of steel and concrete construction, increasing value of urban land, and gradual cultural adoption of modern aesthetics help explain the presence of skyscrapers in many American cities. Chronicling America provides a collection of newspaper articles published at the turn of the twentieth century on the impact of skyscrapers in New York City. Early iron-framed towers, often covered in brick or stone, like the Rookery Building in Chicago, point to the emergence of impressive, well-lit, ground-floor lobbies symbolizing growing influence of American commerce. Nearly a century later, Mies van der Rohe used classical symmetry and gothic articulation to perfect the modern tower of glass and steel. Today, skyscrapers like Chicago’s Aqua by Studio Gang use expressive, curved architectural form to address contemporary challenges of energy consumption, thoughtful real estate development, and context.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.W.1. Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.W.2. Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.W.8. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, assess the credibility and accuracy of each source, and integrate the information while avoiding plagiarism.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.SL.2. Integrate and evaluate information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally.

In 2017, cities around the globe saw the completion of 144 new skyscrapers, a term used to describe tall, vertically arranged buildings most often constructed of glass and steel. Today, modern towers of glass and steel dominate the skylines of many American cities, but how did this come to be? Although these buildings can trace their architectural ancestors back to late 19th-century Chicago, fewer than 6% of all new skyscraper construction occurs in the United States. By tracing the origins of the American skyscraper back to the Industrial Revolution, one unfolds a narrative in which modern building technology, the architectural character of modern cities, cultural aspirations, and real estate practices collide to dictate the shapes and skylines of many modern cities. 

Using primary and secondary resources for six case studies, examine how the construction techniques and physical characteristics of the skyscraper have evolved and/or changed over time. Situate each study within its appropriate historical context and examine how each study is connected to significant 20th-century events. By the end of this lesson, you will be able to create a timeline charting this evolution and further analyze how the skyscraper developed architecturally, culturally, and formally over the course of the 20th and 21st centuries. Identify an additional document (not provided below) that you can use to justify your argument and be prepared to explain how it supports your analysis. Finally, you will use your analysis to predict the global future of skyscrapers.

Questions for initial inquiry:   

1. What forces led to the invention of the skyscraper?

2. What does the skyscraper symbolize, for whom, and has this changed over time?

3. How is the evolution of the skyscraper related to globalization?

Activity One. Introducing Skyscrapers of the Future

In the video Skyscrapers of the Future Will Be Engineered to Copy Nature, the narrator discusses the future of the skyscraper as it relates to technology, the environment, and society. Designers in many of the world’s densest cities are exploring wooden construction as a viable alternative to energy-intensive steel and concrete. As you will examine, improvements in steel and concrete technology led to the invention of the skyscraper, so consider how the introduction of new structural material like wood might change how we understand and interact with these structures.

Activity Two. Six Case Studies

Using the handout provided below, examine the six skyscraper case studies:

• Rookery Building (Chicago, Illinois)
• Wainwright Building (St. Louis, Missouri)
• Flatiron Building (New York, New York)
• 860-880 Lakeshore Drive (Chicago, Illinois)
• Seagram Building (New York, New York)
•  Aqua (Chicago, Illinois)

Each case includes a variety of visual, digital, and text sources offering a brief summary of each case; your task is to carefully record all important information. Remember to always read with a critical eye: facts like names, dates, places, and styles are important, but pay careful attention to the author’s tone and voice. The following prompts will assist your analysis:

• How does each case relate to the cases chronologically before and after?
• How does each case relate to developments in technology and society?

Activity Three. Formation of Narrative

Using your notes from above, construct a document-based written response that responds to the following prompt:

Using the following documents, analyze how the skyscraper developed evolved over the course of the 19th, 20th,and 21st centuries. Identify an additional document (not provided below) and explain how it would help you analyze this evolution and predict one aspect of the skyscraper’s future.

Consider the following in your response:

• What is your thesis?
• How can you support it using the evidence you have?
• How can you explain the relevance of the additional document and how does it aid your prediction of the skyscraper’s future?

Activity Four. Peer Review

Now that you have a working draft, exchange essays with a classmate for peer review. You will assess your peer’s work using the rubric provided. Think like a reader: Is there a clear thesis? Is the argument presented persuasive and supported by evidence? Is the additional document relevant and skillfully incorporated?

Instructors may wish to conclude with a brief discussion of the following:

1. What does the continued popularity of the skyscraper (especially in Asia) say about the future of many cites and the lives of those who live in them? 

2. Will the term “skyscraper” eventually need to be redefined as buildings get taller and technology progresses? Will the skyscrapers of today still be considered skyscrapers in 100+ years?

At the end of class, you will trade your essay with a peer and be given a Peer Review Rubric. Using this rubric, grade your peer according to each category; be sure to justify your assessment of their work using clear, constructive, and concise feedback.

(Note: If students are working digitally, instructors may wish to have students submit their pre-edited work for comparison.)